Brennaz

I have chosen to investigate the question Which of the qualities shown by an entrepreneur has most contributed to the success of their business? An entrepreneur Is a person who sets up a business, taking on financial risks In the hope of profit. Entrepreneurs need a lot of qualities In order to succeed In a business. An entrepreneur needs to be determined, persuasive, he also needs to use his Annihilative, be a good leader, a good decision maker and a good risk taker. I chose to use ‘manmade newsagents' as the business I wanted to investigate. Manmade Newsagents is a successful corner shop in Compton, Plymouth.They make money through a variety of ways such as selling food and drink, but the main way they make money Is by selling newspapers. They hire 30 paper boys at a time, who Individually deliver an average of 45 papers every morning. The owner of this shop is Graham Lam, a willing worker who is always happy to lend a helping hand and to make quick decisions, the workers at the shop say he is always happy and keeps the mood upbeat by making cups of tea often for the workers and allowing workers to have free food from the shop on certain occasions such as birthdays.The different entrepreneurial skills a business owner such as Graham needs are as listed: Determination – http://tolerance. Reference. Com/browse/determination Leadership – http://hob. Org/2004/01/watchmakers-leader/AR/1 Risk Taker An individual or business that tends to behave in a way that can potentially cause physical harm or financial loss, but might also present an opportunity for a rewarding outcome. Most business types that thrive on innovation will encourage a risk taker mentality among management to help support the creative process in other staff members.Source: http://www. Objectifications. Com/definition/risk-taker. HTML) Graham Lam used great leadership skills in order to succeed in his business. He did this by motivating staff on a regular basis, often offering a free compliment to those workers who he felt had impressed him over the course of the week, this seemed to work so he carried on doing It. The commitment and enthusiasm of a business leader shapes the common goals of the organization which provides inspiration and motivation for people to perform at a high level.When I asked his kills; 87% said yes and the other 13% said it didn't help them at all. To succeed with a business you must be a good leader, this keeps the people working for you organized and in order. A good leader is one Who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way Noon C. Maxwell). In a competitive business environment, effective leadership is an essential requirement in order to achieve organizational goals. To do this, leaders must be able to provide inspiration, motivation and clear direction to their team.

Outline current legislation guidelines

The UK government provides guidelines to organisations and individuals in England and Wales to inform them about how legislation enacted in Parliament should be interpreted and applied. Policy is the term used to describe as a principle or rule used to inform decision making within organisations, so that they are able to achieve a rational or desirable outcome. Policy differs from legislation as it guides actions, but cannot compel or prohibit behaviours. A procedure is a document written to support a policy principle or rule.A Procedure is designed to stablish corporate accountability for implementation of a policy by describing the set of actions that have to be executed and by whom within an organization in relation to it. Practitioners working with children do so within a complex framework of both national legislation and guidance, and local policy and procedure, directed at safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children. For practitioners to achieve the best outcomes for chi ldren it is essential that they are familiar with the legislative and policy framework within which work.In terms of current legislation and policy afeguarding the welfare of children and young people is defined as: protecting children from maltreatment preventing impairment of children's health or development ensuring children are growing up in circumstances consistent with the provision of safe and effective care. Child protection is an aspect of safeguarding children's welfare and refers to the activity that is undertaken to protect specific children who are suffering, or are likely to suffer, significant harm.Children Act (1989) The Children Act (1989) charged local authorities with duties to safeguard and romote the welfare of children in their area, to work in partnership with parents and to provide â€Å"services for children in need, their families and 17). The Act also imposed upon local authorities a â€Å"duty to investigate if they have reasonable cause to suspect that a child who lives, or is found, in their area is suffering, or is likely to suffer, significant harm† (section 47).The Children Act (1989) requires courts to make the welfare of the child the paramount consideration in any judgments made. It also introduced the principle that delays in court proceedings ere harmful to the child. The Act articulated the principle that parents have responsibilities for their children not right over them. Education Act (2002) The Education Act ( 2) included a provision (section 1 5 requiring school governing bodies, local education authorities and further education institutions to make arrangements to safeguard and promote the welfare of children.The Laming Report (2003) The Laming Report arose from the inquiry into the murder of child abuse victim Victoria Climbi ©. In his report Lord Laming made at total of 108 recommendations for he overhaul of child protection in England and Wales. Key recommendations of the Laming report included: The cre ation of a children and families board chaired by a senior government minister, to coordinate policies and initiatives, that have a bearing on the wellbeing of children and families.A national agency for children and families, led by a children's commissioner, should be established to ensure local services meet national standards for child protection and implement reforms. The report directed that Safeguarding Boards for children and families should be stablished by councils, with members drawn from social services, education, housing, the NHS, the police and probation services. The boards should appoint a local director of children and family services to monitor effective interagency working on child welfare and protection.The creation of a national children's database that keeps a record of every contact a child has with a member of staff from the police, health and local authorities. Every Child Matters (ECM) (2003) The I-JK government responded to the Laming Report with the Ever y Child Matter (ECM) green paper launched in 2003. ECM covers children and young adults up to the age of 19, or for those with disabilites up to the age of 24..Its main aims are for every child, irrespective of their background or circumstances, to have the support they need to: Be healthy Stay safe Enjoy and achieve Make a positive contribution Achieve economic well-being All childcare settings are required to demonstrate that are promoting the 5 (SHEEP) principles of ECM. Each of these themes has a detailed framework attached whose outcomes require multi-agency partnerships working together to achieve.

10 C for Writing Effectively Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

10 C for Writing Effectively - Essay Example The email also lacks details on the meals and whether spouses are allowed to attend. These are very sensitive elements of any party and therefore in communicating to a team it is imperative to be clear on the same. Another communication problem with the email by bobby is the directive ASAP. This is very unclear and seems dictatorial in nature as it closes the window for those seeking more information yet the email itself is unclear in the first place. Courtesy is overtly lacking in the email as can be seen in salutations. â€Å"Hello everyone† yet these are colleagues and members of a team. The email closure â€Å"see you there† is also more of a directive. The email is thus shallow not only on content but also clarity, courtesy, creativity and completeness. As a result of the communication problems in the email, Bobby will likely have to respond to 50 emails or phone calls from the recipients who will be seeking more information. All this is because Bobby never took enough time to read and revise his email from the perspective of his audience. I pray that this email finds you all in good health. As you all may be already aware, our colleague Joe Banyon will proceeding to retirement next month. A number of his friends have expressed the intentions of holding a farewell party for him and I have been asked to arrange for the same. It has been proposed that we give Joe a gift certificate as our appreciation for the time we have been together and are requesting that every one contributes at least $25 for the same. The contributions can be made to me or Alvin Brook preferably by Thursday afternoon to allow ample time for purchasing the gift. A full-course and refreshments have already been catered for by the company. We welcome any suggestions on how best we can send off our colleague. The preferred date and time is this Friday 22nd May, at 6.00 PM and we chosen City cafà © Restaurant as our venue for the party. The restaurant is located at Windsow

Change in Employee Relations in United Kingdom Essay

Change in Employee Relations in United Kingdom - Essay Example Majority of the employees give preference to work in a better work atmosphere than working in a poor work atmosphere with higher pay. Globalization and other changes that took place in the world caused a drastic change in the employee relation. Huge difference can be seen in between the present form of employee relation and traditional way of employee relation. This paper makes an attempt to evaluate the changes in the employee relation in last 30 years and its importance in the future developments in the context of United Kingdom. Though there may be some variations in employee relation or industrial relations practices in various countries, changes are taking place in various countries in almost similar manner. Decades back, each country may have its own industrial practice, but now due to globalization and advancement of technology majority of the countries' employee relation practices are more or less similar. Today the industrial relation is very important and a widely discussed subject and has a great significance in the growth of industries. The terms labour relation and industrial relation are interchangeably used (Bean, 1994). A good industrial relation has a significant role in the success of any kind of business. Appalachian State University defines employee relations as "it involves the body of work concerned with maintaining employer-employee relationships that contribute to satisfactory productivity, motivation, and morale" (Staff-employee relations, n. d.). Disputes are common at work places. If there is a better labour relation this disputes can be minimized. If the employer is interacting with the employees in a better way it can increase the loyalty of the employees, thereby increasing the productivity of the organisation. Overview of different issues of employee relation Here are different issues related to the employee relation that requires detailed discussion and is always a topic of debate for the experts in this field. Some of the issues are employee grievances, employee wellness, employee compensation, employee discrimination, employee promotion...etc. The management especially human resource management team should be efficient enough to maintain an efficient employee relation in an organisation. 1. Employee grievances handling: Employee grievances are common at work place. If the management t failed properly solves the grievances of employee s o it may cause serious problems to the organization including losing of efficient employees. Employees would not be ready to work in organization where their grievances are not properly solved. There are no industrial concerns which are working smoothly at all times. In some concern employee have complaints against employers. In some other cases employers may have complaints against employees. This is happening mainly due to lack of better employee relation. These grievances may be real, imaginary, valid, invalid, genuine, not genuine etc. Generally speaking complaints affecting one or more employees may be treated as grievances. Grievance is a feeling of discontent or dissatisfaction among workers regarding anything concerned with the company (Som, n. d.). Causes of grievances: There may be variety of reasons for grievance. Some of them are explained below. a. Difference in opinion: The management and

Strategy Management in the course Purchasing and Logistics Essay

Strategy Management in the course Purchasing and Logistics - Essay Example Another strategy for them to adopt is marketing strategy which is a very powerful measure to give them an added competitive advantage in the business arena. Consequently it will allow the organization to focus on concentrating its resources on the greatest opportunities so as to boost sales and attain a sustainable competitive advantage.1 Marketing strategy can be termed as a high-level formula involving the "generals" of the organization in determining how to bank and upgrade the firms strengths while taking advantage of its opponents/ competitors weaknesses. Barclaycard should therefore consider making e marketing strategy a major component of their various strategies. This is because the strategy will define how Barclaycard will engage its clients, predictions and the overall competition in the marketing field for assured success. A marketing strategy will serve as the base of a marketing plan. The plan contains a set of specific actions necessary to successfully implement a specific marketing strategy. For example: attaching low price tags to their products so as to attract more customers. Once the organization establishes a relationship with consumers, it will sell additional, higher-margin services which will enhance the consumers interaction with the low-cost service. The marketing strategy will adequately integrate Barclaycard’s marketing goals, its policies, and sequences of action into a solid whole. The strategy’s objective will be that of providing a foundation for the development of a tactical plan, thereby allowing the e organization to effectively and efficiently carry out its mission. The strategy should flow from the organizations mission statement since the strategy is derived from much broader corporate strategy, missions and goals With every marketing strategy being unique, both generic and specific strategies can be categorised in a number of ways. Michael Porter categorized the strategy on the dimensions of strategic strength and

Gender Pay Gap In Sweden Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Gender Pay Gap In Sweden - Essay Example Estimates vary on the extent of the pay gap, ranging between 15-25% (Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, Opinion on Gender Pay Gap, 2007, pp.1-2). Like many other EU member states the gap between men's and women's pay in Sweden has not changed much in the last ten years and there is a general consensus that women are still earning almost 18% less than men. The paper explicitly analyzes and addresses the different aspects of Gender Pay Gap in Sweden. The data presented in the paper is based on different sources particularly EU study group reports. It highlights different facts and figures about GPG in Sweden, its origins and Swedish government policy response to counter measures and to level out wage differences between women and man. It also gives few examples of good practices. And finally few recommendations are made to reduce the GPG IN Sweden. The gender pay gap refers to the difference between the wages earned by women and by men. In order to take into account differences in working hours and the impact of the income tax system, most estimates are based on differences in gross hourly wages. The most common method is to calculate the gender pay gap as the ratio of women's average gross hourly wage to men's average gross hourly wage, or as the difference between men's and women's gross hourly wage as a percentage of men's average gross hourly wage. In this case, the gender pay gap indicates how many percentage points the earnings of men have to decrease in order to be equal to those of women. Another method is to use the earnings of women as a reference point. In that case, the gender pay gap indicates how many percentage points the earnings of women have to increase in order to be equal to those of men (Meulders et al., 2006). It is unimaginable in a democratic and equal society that women continue to earn on average 15% less than men and 25% less in the private sector. Like many other EU member states the gap between men's and women's pay in Sweden has not changed much in the last ten years and there is a general consensus that women are still earning almost 18% less than men. Sweden's official wage statistics also indicate that over past ten years, the wage levels for women and men in various sectors of employment do not show any significant shift towards equality and has remained unchanged. According to the National Mediation Office 2003 annual report the gap between the sexes has remained largely unchanged over the past 10 years (Berg, 2004, para. 13). The same situation is reiterated by Anita Harriman, an expert on equal pay at the office of the Equal Opportunities Ombudsman which was created in 1980 when Sweden passed its first law against gender discrimination in the workplace. Anita Harriman some what dejectedly admits that they haven't been able to get at wage differentials. "Women in Sweden still earn only 82 percent of what men earn, and the only explanation for some of that disparity is wage discrimination" says Anita Harriman (Alfredsson, 2006, para. 1). In last couple of years the Swedish GPG has observed a fluctuating trend towards levelling GPG. Nevertheless, these inconsistent changes in levelling out

Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 6

Discussion - Essay Example For instance, the atmosphere in the South and the way Southern rich people lived. They were careless and happy and they were living in the world they understood well. They knew that their wealth was based on their slaves’ labor. They also saw nothing wrong about the order established. Slaves were seen as property and they served their masters well. The movie does not provide explicit information on the factors that caused the start of the Civil War. However, the atmosphere is revealed perfectly well. Southerners wanted to defend the life they were accustomed to and the world order that had been established. Young people were fascinated by the idea of having the war, and they gladly joined the army. The atmosphere at Scarlett’s house during the party shows this enthusiasm. The overall support of the war is also seen when the charity ball is depicted. Men and women gladly donated, as they believed that the war was the right cause. It is noteworthy that during one of his lectures, Dr. Foner stresses that war cannot be romanticized as it is horrible and ugly. It is associated with death and destruction. The film provides a lively picture of such statements. Scarlett decides to go back to Tara and she is fleeing a deserted city. She also has to move across a battle field where corpses are still there. The horrible picture of war is provided. As for bias, it is necessary to note that the book (the film is based on Margaret Mitchell’s novel) was written by a white wealthy Southern female who lived during the time of segregation. The film was produced in 1939. Clearly, at that time, voices of African Americans were hardly heard. Thus, no hardships of slaves are depicted. The protagonists are all kind to their slaves. Of course, they still make it clear that they are in charge and their slaves do not know anything about the way things should be going. All slaves express support of their masters and seem to be happy with the

Biology Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Biology - Coursework Example For example, the current UK Governmental recommendation is for an individual to consume at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables per day, which an individual following the above diet would have achieved. It is also recommended that the fruit and vegetables consumed are not all the same colour, again something that this diet provides. Fruit and vegetables are one of the major food groups, the others being starch-based (pasta, rice, bread), protein (meat, fish, eggs), dairy (milk, cheese) and foods containing fat and sugar, although all are needed in different proportions (see diagram 1). Eating a variation of foods from these different groups is essential in maintaining a healthy lifestyle, and the inverse is true – less than adequate quantities from these groups could lead to some serious health problems. Fruit and Vegetables As already discussed, the above diet would provide all the essential fruit and vegetable nutrition for the day. However, it is advisable to eat a wide variety within this group, and thus different combinations within this group should be used throughout the week. Starch The diet above includes three portions of starch – the breakfast porridge, the garlic and the whole meal pasta in the evening. It is recommended that starch in the diet should be whole meal and from complex carbohydrates. Consuming whole meal and complex carbohydrates has been proven to keep blood sugar more consistent throughout the day, as well as increasing insulin sensitivity which can help prevent overeating and obesity. We can assume that the garlic bread found in the diet above has less nutritional value than the other two starch portions and as such could be eliminated from the day and replaced to ensure that calorie input is adequate. Protein Protein is especially important in the human diet, because humans cannot synthesize all 21 amino acids and thus must obtain them nutritionally (Zoumbaris, 2009). Nutritional proteins, found in meat products an d egg albumin, for example, can be broken down into their constituent amino acids and as a result are important for the conservation of life. During the day specified above, the individual consumed chicken breast for lunch, and many of the vegetables will also contain amino acids. The chicken breast could be easily replaced for a vegetarian diet with an egg or some baked beans – both high in protein content. Dairy Dairy products are particularly important for obtaining calcium, a mineral that regulates muscle contraction and blood clotting, as well as ensuring that teeth and bones are strong. Calcium cannot be synthesized in the body and thus must be obtained nutritionally, thus making dairy products necessary. Contrary to popular belief (and diagram 1) it is not only dairy products that contain calcium and this food group can be replaced in the lactose intolerant by certain types of leafy green vegetables, almonds, sesame seeds or calcium enriched milk alternatives. Calcium is not needed in particularly large quantities and the portion of milk in the porridge mentioned above may be adequate. Fat & Sugar Fat and sugar are needed in smaller amounts than any other food type. Fat comes in two types, saturated and unsaturated, and it is currently recommended that saturated fat is consumed in quantities of less than 30g in adult men, with total fat intake being less than 90g a day. Although an excess of fat can be harmful, it should be noted that some fats are needed

Determining sample size Essay Example for Free

Determining sample size Essay Another five days of data was collected to add to the first 10 days of data having a total of 15 days of observation. The following are the text thread data obtained for a total of 15 days. A larger sample is now present for the analysis of the text thread that I have for 15 days. A large sample is really important in statistics. As the sample become larger, the data will approach the data of the whole population. The data will become as close to the real data (Israel, 2009). For example, the mean number of hours at work for the population of workers in United States is 8 hours. The sample mean of 50 workers 7. 5 hours. As the sample size increases, it is possible that the sample mean will become closer to the mean of the population. In this case, why should one use samples instead of the population? Or, why use large samples instead? Certain reasons are given to support the use of samples instead of very large samples or the population itself. One of the common reasons is population are sometimes infinite. When one speaks of infinite population, it means that one cannot actually count the total number of the members of the population. Another reason is time constraints; one cannot collect data for a very large sample or the whole population because there are certain time limitations. After having 15 samples, the mean for the 15 text threads were computed. The mean obtained from the 15 sample is 8. 2 threads per day. The mean for the 15 sample is less than the mean obtained for the data when there are only 10 observations included in the sample. The current sample of 15 observations is still insufficient in order to conclude something from the population. One still cannot determine whether the sample is already sufficient. Sufficient sample size can be determined through formula and different assessments such as the precision, confidence and variability a person wants on his sample. Nevertheless, as long as it is not the population itself, any kind of samples will still have an uncertainty associated in it; the uncertainty associated with the sample is called the sampling error. The smaller the sampling error, the better the sample size one has obtained (US Census Bureau, n. d. ). Reference Israel, G. (2009). Determining sample size. Retrieved August 20, 2010 from http://edis. ifas. ufl. edu/pd006. US Census Bureau. (n. d. ). Things that may affect estimates from the American community survey. Retrieved August 20, 2010 from www. census. gov/acs/www/Downloads/ACS_Affect_Est. ppt.

Discuss the Importance of Dreams in Of Mice and Men Essay Example for Free

Discuss the Importance of Dreams in Of Mice and Men Essay The book Of Mice and Men was published in September, 1937 and was set in the depression of the 1930s in California at the location of Soledad. Steinbeck uses Soledad because it translates as loneliness which arises the point that the time in which this book was set was a time of loneliness where it was very unusual to have a companion or family with you which led to the existence of dreams; to look forward to more pleasant and happier times. At this time: 1930s America, most Americans had the so-called American Dream. This was to own their own piece of land as well as being the boss of it. This was the common dream amongst ranch workers to have something to live for and aid them with their loneliness. The dream came into existence in the 1800s when land was more readily available. By the 1930s, when this novella was set, it was almost impossible to make their dreams a reality due to the 1929 Wall Street stock market collapse which had resulted in prices increasing drastically, and more importantly; there was a desperate act of poverty making people sell what they had and live on the streets. This is what led to the rugged individualism of each person. As well as this, it was made even more difficult as most land had been bought beforehand. It is due to the Wall Street Crash that many went to California for work. President Roosevelt at that time had the job of directing workers such as George and Lennie to ranches or farms where there was work. Steinbeck uses Lennie and George to personify the dream of the migrant worker; own their own land along with giving the opportunity to settle in the promised land (California). Migrant workers are labourers who work on ranches as harvesters involving lifting heavy materials; hard work for little wages. They have no family or friends as they continuously travel to different ranches in California in order to keep work. This is how workers had to get jobs and was the way of life for migrant workers. In relation to this, work card were important as it gave them a work permit which ranch owners required when recruiting. In comparison to modern day working conditions, workers such as George and Lennie would not receive holidays, sickness payments or old age pensions from their ranch. Therefore, futures for most men looked bleak. Without dreams, no-one would have reason to keep going. An example of this is Lennie wanting his own animals in the future to pet. There is symbolism within the book that refers to the Garden of Eden. He sets the scene of this by using description such as Willows fresh and green with every spring which could be interpreted as referring to the Garden of Eden. I believe Steinbeck is trying to put across the imperfectness of humans along with temptation and results of doing a bad thing (said by Lennie). Lennie shows that temptation causes him to lose his way and represents the imperfection of humans. His desire to pet soft objects without foreseeing the consequences puts him on a collision course with others. Also, the girl in Weed and Curleys wife are both temptations that made his curiosity grow and he could not resist. Curleys wife could be seen as the serpent in the garden; a liar, a temptation, a manipulator of men to get her way. Like Eve, she is curious, in this case about Lennie. Her actions are innocent but the outcomes are bad, (telling Lennie to touch her soft hair in the barn which leads to her death) just as Eves actions caused them and human beings to be sent of the perfect place. Curleys wifes actions tempt Lennie whose actions cause him along with the others to lose their dream of a little farm. Lastly, Adam and Eve were thrown out of Eden for going against God; therefore mankind is in loneliness and wandering. Steinbeck shows this when George asks who used to live on his bunk with Candy replying that he had just left: gimme my time one might like any guy would. After this, George then brings Lennie along which creates suspicion because two men didnt travel together; Hardly none of the guys ever travel together. There was a big contrast in the timeless rural vision of America and what was to all but end this: the 1930s Depression. The vision was that workers will move up the ranks of working to eventually own their individual land; however this would never be when the 1930s Depression occurred. There was a big drop in every economic growth along with very high unemployment. It also resulted in countries leaving the gold standard in order to recover. These reasons helped the American Dream to not be a successful one for so many. Steinbeck is effective and does well to imply that there is another world other then the perfect one that was envisaged by everyone by saying: beaten hard by the boys coming down from the ranches and beaten hard by tramps who come wearily down from the highway. Words such as beaten hard and tramps suggest this other world and show the stark contrast between dreams and reality. The main characters include George, who is a small, quick man with well-defined features. He is a migrant ranch worker who dreams of one day saving enough money to buy his own place and being his own boss, many men in the Depression dreamed of this. His only set back is his mentally handicapped friend Lennie whom he travels with and has been since he promised Lennies Aunt Clara he would look after him after she died. Looking after Lennie stops George from working towards his dream and even prevent him from having a normal life of a rancher, because of this, George and Lennie regularly fight. George yearns for companionship as can be told by the metaphor of him playing solitaire. The tension of having to look after Lennie and himself shows in George and he shows a wide variety of emotions during the novella, from anger to patience to sadness. Lennie is mentally slow, hes enormous. He is Georges companion and he is the source of the all the novels conflict. He is Georges opposite both mentally and physically. Lennies innocence and helplessness, his childish actions, such is his desire to pet soft things makes him likeable to the readers of the novella. George and Lennies dream is more materialistic than to just own land and be their own boss, as they envision a place where nobody gona get hurt nor steal from them. The friendship between the two is firmly rooted in their dream. Candy and Crooks along with others are also caught up in the dream. Curlys wife also had a dream which was to become a movie star. But in one way or another, all the dreams of these workers are smashed.

Ethics And Scandals In Financial Reporting Accounting Essay

Ethics And Scandals In Financial Reporting Accounting Essay Integrity is of utmost importance for a successful career in business and finance in the long run. Some believe that the world of finance lacks ethical considerations. Whereas the truth is that such issues are prevalent in all areas of business. The business environment in much of the world is reeling from the revelation of several financial scandals in the past few years. The optimism of the turn of the century has been replaced by scepticism and distrust. It will be discussed as to how we landed ourselves in this situation, what is being done to correct it, and what the future holds for us. Though Enron has been used as the poster-child for this purpose, breakdowns in accounting and corporate governance in Enron as well as in other companies will be discussed. Some companies that have encountered financial reporting problems will be discussed along with the role of auditors (including Andersens role in Enron), the regulatory environment, some of the causes of the problems, and the current and possible future outcomes. Ethics and Accounting Ethics (maintaining true and fair statements) is a key part of financial reporting. For shareholders to trust a company with money, they must feel confident in the companys financial reporting. Financial reporting presents all data relating to the entitys  current, historical and projected health meaning investors and shareholders rely upon the available financial data for making informed and educated decisions. To help entities comply with business regulations and maintain financial reporting, shareholders can trust the existing organizations designed to watchdog different aspects of the accounting world. Primary among the organizations are the Securities and Exchange Committee (SEC), Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB). These three bodies together ensure financial reporting is fair, reliable, and available to all investors. The specific importance of ethics in business and in financial reporting is to inspire and ensure public and investor confidence in companies. Without a strong code of ethics, and adherence to that code, individuals may not be certain their investments are secure. Accounting professionals must have a strong ethical and moral reasoning as their decisions regarding financial reporting can have major consequences for individuals as well as corporations and entire nations. Ethics in the business environment are more than just issues that relate to accounting; because ethical practices can and will cross boundaries from business practice in to what a company may ask its accounting professionals to do in financial record-keeping and recording. The many recent scandals involving accounting fraud generally began at the CEO and made their way down into the financial records. Before the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, various financial abuses such as WorldCom, Enron, and Adelphia Communications plagued the American public and affected economic health of the entire nation adversely. Most of these frauds stemmed from unethical accounting practices instituted at the highest levels of the corporations, but carried out in the financial reporting practices of public accounting firms. In December 2001, Enron, which used to be one of the worlds leading energy companies once, filed the largest bankruptcy in the history of the U.S., using the retirement accounts of thousands of American workers, to enrich those at the highest levels of the corporation. Using thousands of off-the-records partnerships to hide nearly $1 billion in debt and to inflate profits, company had defrauded shareholders of billions. Due to these scandals, President Bush and Congress were forced to take tough stance in the form of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in July of 2002. When ethics seem to be on the downfall in a society, the common man naturally turns to the government for guidance. Various crises in the history of the United States have led to creation of several regulatory bodies and laws. The three entities in the US, mentioned above, work closely together to ensure financial accounting is honest. The SEC, the FASB, and the PCAOB are each an independent entity, but they often work in cooperation in certain areas such as oversight and reporting. While these three bodies work together, they rely on cooperation from member companies and from participation from whistle-blowers in companies and public citizens. As the Enron collapse illustrated, there were systemic failures in the private-sector watchdog-groups. The SEC and the PCAOB must work closely together and include way to fast-track criminal cases. Enron and other financial reporting scandals Enron was a great symbol of widespread problem in corporate America as its rise was as spectacular as its fall. Enron, formed in 1985 when Internorth purchased Houston Natural Gas was soon being run mainly by Houston Natural Gas executives, with Ken Lay as CEO. In 1990, both Jeffrey Skilling and Andy Fastow were hired. In 1996, Skilling became the President and COO. A meteoric rise in both reputation and stock value came by, with Enron being named as one of Fortunes most admired companies in 2001 and its stock price peaking at $90.56 a share as on August 23, 2000. Much of the companys success was credited to the financial wizardry of Fastow. However, companys fall was just around the corner, with Skilling resigning in August of 2001. This was followed by a $1.2 billion write-off, and the beginning of an SEC investigation in October. By December, Enron had declared bankruptcy and the share price was $.26 per share. If Enron had been a lone case, concern would have dissipated quickly and confidence in capital markets would not have plumped. But it was not so. Before Enron, there were companies such as Waste Management and Sunbeam not significant by themselves, but they should have acted as a warning of what was to come. After Enron the disclosures kept coming. WorldCom was caught capitalizing expenses. While Enron was trying to outsmart the accounting and capital market regulators, WorldCom made accounting errors that even novice accounting students would know were inappropriate. A disturbing aspect of many of these scandals is the collusion among many executives. An important observation is that all of these scandals cant be attributed to one factor alone. Each one was different. Hence it can be concluded that the solution is not easy to find. There is no single accounting practice that made these entities vulnerable to executive excesses. What these scandals had in common was a culture that was pervasive in corporations. A culture had come in that made it permissible to lie to shareholders and the markets. The ends justify the means became the corporate mantra. Also, the watchdogs, the auditors had turned a blind eye with their focus just on their consulting businesses. They were not as vigilant as they should have been in audits. The auditors role in ensuring fair play Auditors are supposed to protect the public from the types of abuses that have been seen in the past. Even though financial statements are responsibility of management, the shareholders hire auditors for the protection of their interests and to add credibility to financial information provided by the firms. To be credible, auditors need both expertise and integrity. Expertise assures if there is a financial reporting irregularity, the auditor has the capacity to discover it. Integrity assures that auditors will disclose any irregularity they may find. These two qualities are essential. They are also multiplicative that is if either is missing, other has no value. It has been found that both were missing in many cases. Expertise was missing as audits had come under cost cutting measures of firms. This happened often at the cost of quality. Integrity was gone when auditors forgot that the first allegiance of a professional is to the public. Seldom did auditors betray management for the benefit of the public. Hence, even if they did discover reporting problems, rather than reporting them to the public they often helped management devise ways around the reporting problems. Auditors fell into this position (probably not because they were incompetent or unethical but) because of the cultures in major accounting firms. Andersen, Enrons auditor, is a classic example. There were good auditors who got caught up in an economic struggle leading to undue focus on revenue generation. An audit firm having the highest reputation for competence and integrity compromised on its values as that was the only way its partners thought to be economically competitive. In the more recent Satyam case in India, the fraud started at the top level management and reached the financial records. The role of Pricewaterhouse, Satyams auditor, is also controversial in the said scandal. Causes of financial reporting problems The regulatory environment had not changed suddenly then why did the financial reporting problems surface at the time, is a question to be pondered upon. There are many reasons, not one that dominates. It was a confluence of circumstances that opened eyes to the problems. The bursting of the bubble economy was a major reason these financial abuses came to light. When everything was seemed bright, nobody questioned companies financial reports. In accounting the lack of relevance of historical cost accounting and even the basic traditional accounting framework were being discussed. The new economy was not to last forever. And when it did not last, investors began to ask tough questions. For many of the questions, there were no answers only denials and cover-ups. In the auditing profession, audits had become loss leaders. The balance sheets and income statements had lost value, so auditing of the statements was not important. Thus, many audits became hasty and more of a formality. No one was willing to pay for quality audits, so many audit firms believed there remained no sense in competing on the basis of quality. Cost drove audit decisions. Lower cost even with lower quality was the norm. The passivity of corporate boards was also a contributor. This was worsened by the growing number of complex financial transactions, most of which were beyond understanding of board members, who had gained their experience before such instruments came into being. Even a former accounting professor heading Enrons Audit Committee, a person of utmost integrity, had difficulty understanding the implications of the companys financial manoeuvring. Finally, the biggest culprit is the corporate culture. Focus was laid on short-term gains forgetting about all long-run considerations. Also the executive scorecard became focused on salary. Many players had become greedy executives, investors, and attorney, among others but more than that was the need to compete on the basis of compensation. Implications for accounting educators The perpetrators of most of financial reporting scandals are former students, graduates of accounting or MBA programs. So educators must ask themselves: What are they doing wrong and what must they do to fix the problems? The first obvious reaction is to emphasize ethics in business and accounting curricula. This is important. Educators in a business ethics class can not dissuade someone who is inclined to commit a fraud from doing so. But it is also true that most perpetrators did not at the onset set out to commit a fraud. They simply got ended up on a slippery zone. Also, the most disappointing aspect about most of the scandals is the number of people who, (though not personally involved) knew what was happening and still did nothing. Exceptions to the rule are some courageous whistle blowers, many of whom were products of university accounting programs. Thus, the focus of ethics classes should be to recognize and analyse the situations that can lead to compromise on ones ideals and values, and to promote the reporting of inappropriate behaviour. This can be best done in context because ethics issues come up in context, with you imagining yourself in the real situation. It is easy to go into an ethics class and give the answer that the instructor wants. It is an altogether different thing to put ones self in a case situation with conflicting pressures, and determine the appropriate action when ethics is only one of the many factors impacting your decision. Conclusion The accounting profession is in the middle of a challenging time. A reputation gained over years and decades can be lost in a day. Accountants were thought of as persons of high integrity working at an uninteresting job. In the current scenario the job has gotten more interesting, but at the cost of their reputation for integrity. It is essential to win back the trust of the public and maintain their belief in the importance of accounting. The road to restoring integrity of accountants today is a long one. The job will neither be quick nor easy, with the new series of financial reporting scandals that have come up.

Frontline :: essays research papers

â€Å"Frontline† exposure of current affairs programs makes a mockery of journalistic integrity. Through humorous portrayals of important issues, and clever imitation â€Å"Frontline† makes veiwers aware of ridicule towards journalistic integrity. While current affairs programs are based on real life stories, which are enhanced to ‘make good news’, Frontline is based on the making of these stories. Frontlines purpose is to inform the audience of the life behind a current affair program but more importantly its main focus is on entertaining the audience. This is achieved in many ways, primarily by bending real life situations out of contempt to journalists uprightness. Current affair programs do not take stories as they are and simply present them with the facts, they are sensationalised and enhanced to bring more entertainment value to them, however this is not widely known throughout the general public. Furthermore it’s exactly what Frontline did with â€Å"The Siege† and â€Å"Dessert Angel† when it complemented certain factors of the story to make them sound more entertaining than the boring facts. By ‘enhancing’ the facts and manipulating the truth it made the stories more presentable to the audience as a form of entertainment and mockery in regards to journalists. This was spoken about in the â€Å"Dessert Angel† episode when Marty shows Stu how anyone can be turned into ‘good media fodder’ Frontline is aimed at being a comedy program and therefore has a main purpose of comedy and entertainment rather than informing. Most nightly current affair programs struggle to get articles for each night. Most with three or four articles a night have a very tight and limited time schedule to prepare each night. Therefore with such a limited time they are unable to really concentrate on the serious analysis of some current affairs programs. ‘Frontline’ exaggerates and exposes this concept in the episode ‘Desert Angel’, where ‘Frontlines’ integrity is taunted as it secures an exclusive with Australian aid worker Jessica Steckle, whom a week before was given a funeral by the team at Frontline with Mike providing the eulogy. The issue is made humorous with the bidding war scene directly following Mike’s adamant speech that the team at ‘Frontline’ do have ethics and integrity. Whilst the episode maintains its criticism of current affairs programs and journalists by indicating that ‘bidding wars’ and ‘chequebook journalism’ are ri fe though-out such programs. In ‘The Siege’, ‘Frontline’ again tackles an exceptionally topical issue, and interspersing ironic humour to signify their criticisms.

How does the writer use language to create suspense in The Red Room :: English Literature

How does the writer use language to create suspense in The Red Room The Red Room is about a man who is staying at an old house with a haunted room, which he is going to spend the night in. He is unwilling to listen to the warnings of the three elderly occupants of the house who are sure that the room is haunted. The story starts with the man speaking and being very confident about staying in the room and how only a tangible ghost will frighten him he is saying that nothing can hurt him unless it is solid or touchable which is not what ghosts are like. So he is also saying that ghosts do not exist. He tries to back up this by saying that he has â€Å" lived for eight and twenty years and never seen a ghost† however the old woman says â€Å" that he has never stayed in a house like this†. This creates more suspense because the reader want to know what the house is like and why it is haunted and what the inhabitants have experienced to support their beliefs in a paranormal housemate. To make the story more mysterious none of the characters is named. The three old people are described, as though they are unhealthy and decaying so they look like ghosts in comparison to the narrator. The narrator then wants to go to the room, so he asks the elderly people if they would guide him there but they just ignore him. He sounds very authoritative and superior but also very arrogant and the old people do not answer him so he repeats the request a little louder and they just tell him where he can find the candle and say he must go alone. Then the old woman says â€Å"this night of all nights† which again creates more tension because what did happen on this night? They give him directions to the room and he leaves them and heads for the room but just before he leave the old man says â€Å"its of your choosing† the old man is saying that when the narrator finds what ever is in the room don’t come to them saying we was pushed you into it†. The writer goes on to set the scene for the journey to the room. Portraying it as a chilly echoing passage, which sounds very threatening and menacing. He talks about the three old pensioners that occupy the castle coming from an age where there was no science and the existence of omens and witches were creditable. As he goes down

Coroprate Restructuring

Restructuring also conveys the certain information of the business decision to another party. It also can be because of poor performance, hence restructuring loud pull out the business entity from the parent company and make it a standalone company. Most occasions, restructuring is to correct the poor strategic decisions made in the past. The company we are going to talk about is â€Å"Sony† it is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation. Its diversified business is primarily focused on electronics, games, entertainment and financial services sectors.The first form of restructuring include divestitures, it is the sale of a business segment to another party. Sony has decided to sell off its AVIVA line of PC's in a move that effectively takes the Japan based company out of the PC market. This is a result of Sonny's poor sales performance, by doing this the organization get rid of a business entity that was pulling them down and it provides a sharper focus for the manage ment. Hence their shares would be increased as their drop their poor performance sector.Divestitures may arise due to negative synergy arising from poor decisions on past acquisition on poor decisions made during periods of high growth. Much evidence seems to show generally that by announcement of selling companies results in a positive share prices response. Spin off has been done recently by Sony as they have detached a business entity with TTS own assets and liability. It allows the management to focus on their core business. What it does is they debut independent company by detaching part of a parent company's assets and operations.They are trying to spin off their Titration TV. This is because of strong competition from both locally and internationally with Phillips and Samsung as their strong competitors. It allows the shareholders to have shares in both companies. The next method would be Carving Out. This method is very similar Spin off, with the difference being a very tech nical one which is the carving out of shares of the new many is offered to the public. It leads to lower premiums and higher gains for the buyers and for the sellers.They increase the likelihood of successfully closing the deal. Capturing these advantages would require them to look beyond the financial to understand the challenges ahead associated with the change. The carved out company trades as an independent company. Government owned company to private investors. The reason for prevarication is to increase efficiency, individual share ownerships and revenue for the government. In Japan, the Japan Post was a government owned corporation in Japan existed from 003 to 2007.It has over 400,000 employees throughout Japan was the nation's largest employer. As being a government-owned corporation, would allow more efficient and flexible use of the company's funds that would help revivalist Japan's economy, which was recovering from recessions in 1991. Prevarication also prevents corrupti on and patronage. This can be accomplished by the sale or lease. It can be accomplished by the government selling 100% of an enterprise, or selling 51%, or even by selling a minority stake as long as the private sector is given full managerial control.Another major step in restructuring is the leveraged buyout or leveraged restructuring, it would mean the takeover of a company using the acquired firm's assets and cash flow to obtain financing. These transactions are done by conglomerates selling off an unwanted subsidiary to private investors. Lobos also have been financed with high-yield debt or Junk Bonds and have also been done with the interest rate capped at a fixed level and interest costs above the cap added to the principal. For commercial banks, Lobos are attractive because these financing have large up-front fees.They also fill the gap in corporate lending created when large corporations begin using commercial paper and corporate bonds in place of bank loans. Sony used thi s method to acquire Metro-Golden-Mayer on September 23, 2004 which is a good deal for the company as a report suggests that they may reach $1 million to $million in 2005. Private Equity of firms or funds is to raise money from investors to invest the money in privately held companies. The sale of AVIVA to a local private equity fund after several strategic buyers balked at taking on the personal computer business.PC sales have been hurt globally by the growing sales of tablet devices. Worldwide shipments have fallen by 13. 5 per cent over the past two years. Private equity firms will then try to improve the financial results and prospects of the company in the hope of reselling the company to another firm or cashing out via an PIP. In short with the sale of AVIVA too private company, Sony is able to use the fund to focus more on their primary core business as they were having problems with competing with personal computers overseas.However the most common method in restructuring is the laying off of workers. As Japan has lots of financial crisis the biggest lay off happen when they offload its PC business and its plans to lay off 5,000 workers by March 2015. This is very common around the world. This is to conscious use of permanent personnel reduction in an attempt to improve management as one of the preferred routes to turning around declining organization by cutting cost and improving organizational performance as a form to cutting cost.When budget is tightened, many managers will start to cut the training budget thinking that training is a luxury it would make their employees more marketable Hereford leaves the company for the better Jobs. However the layoff of workers is made harder with restrictions of the country. Mergers today are the survival of the fittest. Sony Mobile Communications ABA formerly known as Sony Ericson Mobile ABA. Telecommunications equipment company Ericson under the name of Sony Ericson.Ericson, which had been in the mobile phone ma rket for decades, and was the world's third largest cellular telephone handset marker was struggling with huge losses. This was mainly due to this fire and its inability to produce cheaper phones eke Monika hence the merger with Sony in 2001. Restructuring deals the organization to maintain its competitiveness in an evolving consumer electronics market. In order for Sony to maintains its position as a leader in the electronics industry pushing the limits of innovation with products and experiences exclusive to Sony.They would have to conduct and economic model of the processes of the organization, to give a detailed view of where and the value is created to ensure that resources can be funded to different part of the organization. It allows the organization like Sony to achieve market focus, invent new businesses and change the rules of competition through technology via breakthrough. These are steps to implement to increase market share in organization. A company would be stagnant unless they introduce new market or enhanced strategies to combat competition or to introduce themselves to reach new market.The need to increase asset base may lead to mergers. This will improve the capital of the organization, acquisitions can help an organization by ward off competition. Organizational leaders often find it necessary to change how their units operate for seasons like changing unit priorities, initiating new programs. A successful organizational requires careful advance preparation and planning that addresses programmatic needs, support services required to advance organizational goals and effective workforce planning and communication.Proper communication is very important when it comes to corporate restructuring, the workers should know their limitations and their options. It is very important for the company to follow the guidelines set by the governing country to minimize the PASTEL during their pursuit of corporate restructuring process. The results from the essay have revealed that there has been significant change in profitability post restructuring program.Like Sony, many companies have responded favorably that the corporate restructuring have helped the firms to have an increase in their profitability to make their shareholders happy. Overall the analysis has indicated that Sony have successfully implemented restructuring program. It is suggested that companies at the core level should identify the problems and accordingly plan for restructuring of the required processes for achieving success so hat they can enhance shareholder's value like implement the different processes Sony have implemented.

Statistics Course Notes

†¢ Defining What Statistics Really Is 1. 1 Nature of Statistics The term â€Å"Statistics† came from the Latin word ‘status’ which could be translated as ‘state’. The usage of this term only became popular during the 18 th century where they defined Statistics as â€Å"the science of dealing with data about the condition of a state or community†. The practice of statistics could be traced back even from the early biblical times where they gather figures related to governance of the state for they realized the importance of these figures in governing the people.Even until today, worldwide, governments have intensified their data gathering and even widen the scope of their numerical figures due to the rise of more cost-efficient methods for collecting data. Some of the most popular figures that are being released by almost all countries are Gross National Product (GNP), Birth rates, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rate, Literacy Rates and Fore ign Currency Exchange Rates. Also, the use of Statistics is not limited to government use only. Right now, almost all business sectors and fields of study use statistics.Statistics serves as the guiding principle in their decision making and helps them come up with sound actions as supported by the analysis done in their available information. Indicated below are some of the uses of Statistics in various fields: Medicine: Medical Researchers use statistics in testing the feasibility or even the efficacy of newly developed drugs. Statistics is also used to understand the spread of the disease and study their prevention, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment (Epidemiology).JDEUSTAQUIO 1 Economics: Statistics aids Economists analyze international and local markets by estimating some Key Performance Indicators (KPI) such as unemployment rate, GNP/GDP, amount of exports and imports. It is also used to forecast economic fluctuations and trends. Market Research: derives statistics by conducti ng surveys and coming up decisions from these statistics through feasibility studies or for testing the marketability of a new product.Manufacturing: use statistics to assure the quality of their products through the use of sampling and testing some of their outputs Accounting/Auditing: uses sampling techniques in statistics to examine and check their financial books. Education: Educators use statistical methods to determine the validity and reliability of their testing procedures and evaluating the performance of teachers and students. 1. 2 Basic Concepts We normally hear the word â€Å"statistics† when people are talking about basketball or the vital statistics of beauty contestants.In this context the word â€Å"statistics† is used in the plural form which simply means a numerical figure. But the field of Statistics is not only limited to these simple figures and archiving them. In the context of this course, the definition of â€Å"Statistics† is mainly abou t the study of the theory and applications of the scientific methods dealing all about the data and making sound decisions on this. Statistics is the branch of science that deals with the collection, presentation, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. Sometimes, gathering the entire collection of elements is very tedious, expensive or even timeconsuming.Because of this data gatherers sometimes resort to collecting just a portion of the entire collection of elements. The term coined for the entire collection of elements is called Population while the subset of the population is referred as the Sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 2 Population is the collection of all elements under consideration in a statistical inquiry while the sample is a subset of a population. THINK: Could you say that the entire population is also a sample? The specification of the population of interest depends upon the scope of the study.Let’s say that if we wish to know the average expenditure of all hous eholds in Metro Manila, then the population of interest is the collection of all households in Metro Manila. If there is a need to delimit the scope of the study due to some constraints, we could redefine the population of interest. We could delimit the scope of the study to only specific city in Metro Manila. With this the study would only include the collection of all households in ________ City. The elements of the population is not only limited to individuals, it can be objects, animals, geographical areas, in other words, almost anything.Some examples of possible populations are: the set of laborers in a certain manufacturing plant, the set of foreigners residing on Boracay for a certain day, set of Ford Fiesta produced in the entire Philippines on a month. In any studies involving the use of Statistics, there would be at least one attribute of the element in the population which we would be studying. This attribute or characteristic is what we call variable. Just like in the f ield of Mathematics, we normally denote a variable with a single capital letter i. e. A, X, Z.The variable is a characteristic or attribute of the elements in a collection that can assume different values for the different elements. While an observation is a realized value of the variable, and the collection of these observations is called the data. Example: The Department of Health is interested in determining the percentage of children below 12 years old infected by the Hepatitis B virus in Metro Manila in 2006. Population: Set of all children below 12 years old in Metro Manila in 2006 Variable of Interest: whether or not the child has ever been infected by the Hepatitis B virus.Possible Observations: Infected, Never Infected Regardless of whether every element of the data on the population or sample is used, it is often still difficult to convey meaning to these observations is not summarized. This is the JDEUSTAQUIO 3 reason why it is important to condense these observations to a single figure to completely describe the entire data. This condensed value is what we call summary measure. The parameter is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of a population while a statistic is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of the sample. . 3 Fields of Statistics There are two major fields in Statistics. The first one is (i) Applied Statistics, this deals mainly with the procedures and techniques used in the collection, presentation, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. On the other hand, the second one is (ii) Mathematical Statistics, which is concerned with the development of the mathematical foundations of the methods used in Applied Statistics. In this course, we would mostly deal with the basics of Applied Statistics. This field could also by sub-divided into two areas of interest.These two are Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. Both are definitive of their names. Descriptive Statistics includes all the techni ques used in organizing, summarizing, and presenting the data on hand, while Inferential Statistics includes all the techniques used in analyzing the sample data that will lead to generalizations about a population from which the sample came from. To clarify, we may use descriptive statistics for population data or sample data. If we are dealing with population data, then the results of the study are applicable only to the defined population.In the same manner, if we use descriptive statistics to sample data, then the conclusions are applicable only to the selected sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 4 1. 4 Statistical Inquiry Statistical Inquiry is a designed research that provides information needed to solve a research problem. Oftentimes, researchers can now find an appropriate statistical technique that will help them answer their research problems. This is because o the wide array of applications of the various statistical techniques used in a statistical inquiry. Below is the diagram depictin g the entire process of statistical inquiry.Step 1: †¢ Identify the Problem †¢ Plan the Study †¢ Collect the Data †¢ Explore the Data †¢ Analyze Data and Interpret the Results †¢ Present the Results Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 JDEUSTAQUIO 5 †¢ Theory without data is just an Opinion 2. 1 Measurement The data used for statistical analysis should always be accurate, complete, and up-todate because the information that we would get is only as good as the data that we have. Good quality data comes at a cost but if we have the assurance of obtaining essential information that answers our research problem then it is all worth it.Measurement is the process of determining the value or label of the variable based on what has been observed. Naturally, our interpretation of the values in our data will depend on the measurement system or the rule that we used to assign the values to the different categories of the variable. In particular, it will depend on the relationship among the values used in the system. The general classification used to describe the types of relationship among these values or categories is what is known as â€Å"levels of measurement†. The four levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio level.It is necessary to know the level of measurement used to measure a variable because this will help in the interpretation of the values of the variables and choosing the suitable statistical technique to use in the analysis. Ratio level of measurement has all of the following properties : a) the numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object into distinct, nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories; b) the system arranges the categories according to magnitude; c) the system has a fixed unit of measurement representing a standard size throughout the scale; and d) the system has an absolute zero.JDEUSTAQUIO 6 Some examples of variables with ratio level of measurement are: 1. Distance t raveled by a car (in km) 2. Height of a flag pole (in metres) 3. Weight of a whole dressed chicken (in kilograms) Now we will discuss each of the properties that is required for a measuring scale to have in order for it to be considered as having a ratio level of measurement: a) The numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object into distinct nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories. This first condition requires that we use categories that would place the observations logically into one and only one category.This means that two objects assigned the same value must belong in the same category and be placed in a different category if the characteristics of interest is really different. b) The system arranges the categories according to magnitude. This second property requires that the measurement system must arrange the categories according to either ascending or descending order. c) The system has a fixed unit of measurement representing a standard size throughout the s cale. The third property requires the scale to use a unit of measure that depicts a fixed and determinate quantity.This means that a one-unit difference must have the same interpretation wherever it appears in the scale. d) The system has an absolute zero. The fourth property requires the measurement system to have an absolute zero or the true zero point. This means that the scale considers the value, â€Å"0† (zero) as the complete absence of the characteristic itself. One example of this is any monetary measurement where zero means that there is absolutely no money. Interval Level of Measurement satisfies only the first three conditons of the ratio level of measurement.The only difference of the interval level of measurement to the ratio level of measurement is the absence of the absolute zero value. This means that the interval level of measurement considers â€Å"0† (zero) as a value like any other numbers and not as the absence of JDEUSTAQUIO 7 the characteristic of interest. The most common example of this is measuring temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit where the value â€Å"zero† does not mean that there is no temperature. Ordinal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first two conditons of the ratio level of measurement.The ordinal level of measurement only uses a scale that ranks or orders the observed values in either ascending or descending order. The interval or simply the difference of the scale from one point to another does not need to be equal all throughout the scale. For example the ranking of the student in class according to their grades could be tagged as 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and so on. The difference of the grade between the 1st student and the 2nd placed student does not need to be of the same gap between the 4 th placer and the 5th placer.Nominal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first property of the ratio level of measurement. The nominal level of measurement is the weakest level of measurement among the four. This is because its only aim is to classify the values into separate categories without regards to the ordering of these categories in ascending or descending manner. Most often, this level of measurement uses non-quantifiable categories like the different religions, zip code or the student number. 2. 2 Collecting Data 2. 2 . 1 Data Collection Methods The most commonly used methods for collecting data are: i. Use of Documented Data, ii. ) Surveys, iii. ) Experiments, and iv. ) Observation. Use of Documented Data It is not necessary to use original data in conducting studies; sometimes it would make things easier if the researcher uses the data that is already available if there is such one suitable for the study. The only dilemma with using documented data is its reliability and veracity. Therefore, the researcher must look closely on the source of this data to have a measure on the reliability JDEUSTAQUIO 8 of the data that would be used.Also, these documented data can be cat egorized in to two, the primary data and the secondary data. Primary Data are data documented by the primary source, meaning, the data collectors themselves documented the data. Secondary Data are data documented by a secondary source, meaning, an individual/agency, other than the data collectors, documented the data. Surveys Another common method of collecting data is the survey. The people who answer the questions in a survey are called the respondents. This method is much more expensive than collecting data using documented stuff.Another problem of using surveys is that reliability of the data depends mainly on the survey process itself, either from the respondent, the survey design, questionnaire or if it is a personal interview there might be a problem with the interviewer if he/she lacks training. The Survey is a method of collecting data on the variable/s of interest by asking people questions. When data came from asking all the people in the population, then it is called cen sus. On the other hand, when the data came from asking a sample of people selected from a well-defined population, the it is called a sample survey.Experiments If the researcher is interested in something that involves cause-and-effect relationship, conducting the experiment is most likely the suitable way of collecting data. The most common experiment that is normally conducted during the primary level is the mongo seed experiment. The aim of this experiment is to see the relationship of the growth of the mongo in relation with sunlight exposure, amount of water and the type of soil. The Experiment is a method of collecting data where there is direct human intervention on the conditions that may affect the values of the variable of interest.Observation Method The Observation Method is a method of collecting data on the phenomenon of interest by recording the observations made about the phenomenon as it actually happens. JDEUSTAQUIO 9 The observation method is useful in studying the reactions and behavior of individuals or groups of persons/objects in a given situation or environment as it happens, For example, a researcher may use the observation method to study the behavior patterns of an indigenous tribe which is difficult to be gathered using the other methods. 2. 2. 2 The QuestionnaireThe questionnaire is an instrument for measuring which is used in various data collection methods (commonly used in surveys). The questionnaire may either be selfadministered or interview-based which are both explanatory of their names. 2. 2. 2. 1 Type of Questions ? A Closed-ended question is a type of question that includes a list of response categories from which the respondent will select his/her answer. ? An Open-ended question is a type of question that does not include response categories. Comparison of Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions Open-Ended ?Respondent can freely answer ? Can Elicit feeling and emotions of the respondent ? Can reveal new ideas and views tha t the researcher might not have considered ? Good for complex issues ? Good for questions whose possible responses are unknown ? Allow respondents to clarify answers ? Get detailed answers ? Shows how respondent think ? ? ? ? Closed-Ended Facilitates tabulation of responses Easy to code and analyze Saves time and money High response rate since it is simple and quick to answer ? Response categories make questions easy to understand ?Can repeat the study and easily make comparisons JDEUSTAQUIO Advantages 10 Disadvantages ? Difficult to tabulate and code ? High refusal late because it requires more ? ? ? ? ? Increases respondent to burden when time and effort on the respondent Respondents need to be articulate Responses can be inappropriate or vague May threaten respondent Responses have different levels of detail there are too many or too limited response categories ? Bias responses against categories excluded in the choices ? Difficult to detect if the respondent misinterpreted the q uestion 2. 2. . 2 Response Categories for Close-ended Questions 1. Two-way Question – provides only two alternative answers from which the respondent can chose Example: Have you ever traveled outside the country by any means of transportation? Yes No 2. Multiple-choice Question – provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can only choose one. Example: What is your marital status? Never Married Divorced/Separated Married Widowed 3. Checklist Question – provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can choose as many responses that apply to him/her.Example: What kind/s of novel do you like to read? Comedy Romance Fantasy Sci-Fi Horror Non-fiction Mystery Others, please specify ____________ JDEUSTAQUIO 11 4. Ranking Question – provides categories that respondents have to either arrange from highest to lowest or vice versa depending upon a particular criterion. Example: Below is a list of considerations in choosing and buyin g a new laptop. Put number (1) beside the quality that you prioritize the most, (2) for the second priority and so on. Prize Brand Quality Durability Style Novelty Warranty [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] . Rating Scale Question – provides a graded scale showing all possible directions and intensity of attitude of a respondent on a particular question or statement. Example: How satisfied are you on the teaching method of your instructor in this course? 1 Very Dissatisfied 2 Dissatisfied 3 Neutral 4 Satisfied 5 Very Satisfied 6. Matrix Question – a type of question which places various questions together to save space in the questionnaire. It is like having any of the five earlier types of questions and squeezing more than one question in a form of a table.Example: For each statement, please indicate with a checkmark whether you agree or disagree with it Statements Statistics is a very difficult subject Only few people could understand Statistics I would rather sleep than s tudy Statistics at home Agree Disagree JDEUSTAQUIO 12 2. 2. 2. 3 Pitfalls to Avoid in Wording Questions 1. Avoid Vague Questions – State all question clearly. All respondents must have the same interpretation to a question. If not, their answers will not be comparable, making it difficult to analyze their responses. Example: How often do you watch a movie in a movie theatre?Very Often Often Not too often Never Problem: The word â€Å"often† is vague. Instead, you may ask how many times did he/she watched a movie last month. 2. Avoid Biased Question – A biased question influences the respondents to choose a particular response over the other possible responses. Whether the bias is caused accidentally or intentionally, the data would become useless because it still failed to reveal the truth. Example: There are many different types of sport like badminton, basketball, billiards, bowling and tennis. Which type of sport d you enjoy watching?Problem: The sports menti oned in the first sentence will be in the top of the minds of the respondents. It is likely for the respondents to choose from among these sports. This will result in a bias against the sports not mentioned in the list. 3. Avoid Confidential and Sensitive Questions – These questions usually offend the pride or jeopardize the prestige of the respondent. Example: Do you bring home office supplies? If yes, how often do you bring home office supplies? Problem: The question may sound offensive to the pride of the respondent. 4.Avoid Questions that are difficult to answer – Do not ask questions that are too difficult for the respondent to answer truthfully. Such questions would only encourage respondents to guess their answers, if not totally refuse to answer the question. Example: If you are the president of the nation, what are you going to do to attain economic recovery? JDEUSTAQUIO 13 5. Avoid Questions that are confusing or perplexing to answer – Sometimes a poor ly written question can confuse the respondent on how to answer the question Example: Did you eat out and watch a movie last weekend?Problem: This is a double-barreled question, where you combine two or more question in to a single question. You should opt to separate this question into two to avoid confusion. 6. Keep the Questions short and simple – Long and complicated question can be difficult to understand. The respondent may lose interest in the question because of its length or might have problem comprehending very long statement needed to understand the question. 2. 3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques 2. 3. 1 Basic Concepts As we have discussed on the previous Chapter 1, sample is the subset of a population.Some people think that if we are basing our analysis on samples, why don’t we just guess our analysis entirely without any data? This question could be partially answered by a quote from Sir Charles Babbage, the Father of the Computer who said that, â€Å"Err ors using inadequate data are much less than those using no data at all†. So now, before we can talk about the different sampling selection procedures, we need to familiarize ourselves first with some terms. The target population is the population we want to study The sampled population is the population from where we actually select the sampleIt is good if the target and the sampled population have the same collection of elements. The problem is that often times in life, expectations do not jive well with reality. One example where the target and the sampled population would be different from each other is the case where the target population is the collection of all the residents of Metro Manila. If we would be using a telephone directory to select our sample, this collection would be very different from the target population since this would exclude all the residents that have no landline.JDEUSTAQUIO 14 The sampling frame or frame is a list or map showing all the sampling u nits in the population. In any statistical inquiry, whether the data will come from a census or from a sample, it is important that we are conscious of all the possible errors that we introduce (hopefully not intentionally) in the results of the study. In order for us to do this and reduce these errors, we need to understand the possible sources of errors, namely, the sampling errors and the nonsampling errors.Sampling error is the error attributed to the variation present among the computed values of the statistic from the different possible samples consisting of n elements. Nonsampling errors is the error from other sources apart from sampling fluctuations Note that the ONLY TIME that the sampling error would not be present is if we have conducted a census. However, census results are NOT ERROR-FREE. Census and samples can both have nonsampling errors (simply the errors not brought solely by sampling). Total Error Nonsampling Error Error in the implementation of the sampling desig n Measurement Error Sampling ErrorSelection Error Instrument Error Frame Error Population Specification Error Response Error Processing Error Interviewer Bias Surrogate Information Error Diagram of the Various Sources of Error JDEUSTAQUIO 15 2. 3. 2 Methods of Probability Sampling Probability Sampling is a method of selecting a sample wherein each element in the population has a known, nonzero chance of being included in the sample; otherwise, it is a nonprobability sampling method. ? A nonzero chance of inclusion means that the sampling procedure must give all the elements of the sample population an opportunity of being a part of the sample.All of the elements that belong in the sampled population must be included in the selection process. ? Another requirement of probability sampling is that we should be able to determine the chance that an element will be included in the selected sample. Take note that the probability of each element in the sampled population need not be equal t o each other. 2. 3. 2. 1 Simple Random Sampling Simple Random Sampling (SRS) is a probability sampling method wherein all possible subsets consisting of n elements selected from the N elements of the population have the same chances of selection.In simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR), all the n elements in the sample must be distinct from each other. In simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR), the n elements in the sample need not be distinct, that is, an element can be seleceted more than once as a part of the sample. The most apparent example of SRSWOR that we could see every day on mass media is the National lottery where the numbers that would be drawn must be distinct and every number should have an equal chance of being selected in the draw. JDEUSTAQUIO 16 Visual representation of Simple Random Sampling without Replacement. 2. 3. 2. 2 Stratified SamplingStratified sampling is a probability sampling method where we divide the population into nonoverlappi ng subpopulations or strata, and then select one sample from each stratum. The sample consists of all the samples in the different strata. Stratified sampling, in general, simply requires the division of the population into nonoverlapping strata, wherein each element of the population needs to belong to exactly one stratum. Then each sample would be selected form the strata using any probability sampling method. If simple random sampling used for each sample in the strata then this sampling is called stratified random sampling.JDEUSTAQUIO 17 Visually, it might look something like the image below. With our population, we can easily separate the individuals by color. Once we have the strata determined, we need to decide how many individuals to select from each stratum. The most common practice is that the number selected should be proportional. In our case, 1/4 of the individuals in the population are blue, so 1/4 of the sample should be blue as well. Working things out, we can see th at a stratified (by color) random sample of 4 should have 1 blue, 1 green and 2 red. JDEUSTAQUIO 18 2. 3. 2. 3 Systematic SamplingSystematic sampling is a probability sampling method wherein the selection of the first element is at random and the selection of the other elements in the sample is systematic by taking every kth element from the random start, where k is the sampling interval To select a sample using systematic sampling, we need to perform the following steps: 1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial number, from 1 to N, to each one of the elements in the population. 2. Choose n = sample size so that it is a divisor of N = population size. Compute for the sampling interval k = N/n. 3.Select a number from 1 to k, using a randomization mechanism. Denote the selected number by r. The element in the population assigned to this number is the first element of the sample. 4. The other elements of the sample are those assigned to the numbers r + k, r + 2k, r +3 k, and so on, until you get a sample size of n. 5. In case that k = N/n is not a whole number; the first element would still be r but would be a randomly chosen number from 1 to N instead k as used on the previous step. By visual explanation, so to use systematic sampling, we need to first order our individuals, then select every kth.In our example, we want to use 3 for k? Can you see why? Think what would happen if we used 2 or 4. JDEUSTAQUIO 19 For our starting point, we pick a random number between 1 and k. For our visual, let's suppose that we pick 2. The individuals sampled would then be 2, 5, 8, and 11. 2. 3. 2. 4 Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method wherein we divide the population into nonoverlapping groups or clusters consisting of one or more elements, and then select a sample of clusters. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters.To select a sample using cluster sampling, we need to perform the following steps: 1. Divide t he population into nonoverlapping clusters. 2. Number the clusters in the population from 1 to N. 3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using a randomization mechanism. The selected clusters are the clusters associated with the selected numbers 4. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters. Cluster sampling is often confused with stratified sampling, because they both involve â€Å"groups†. In reality, they're very different. In stratified sampling, we split the population up into groups (strata) based on some characteristic.In essence, we use cluster sampling when our population is already broken up into groups (clusters), and each cluster represents the population. That way, we just select a certain number of clusters. JDEUSTAQUIO 20 With our visual, let's suppose the 12 individuals are paired up just as they were sitting in the original population. Since we want a random sample of size four, we just select two of the clusters. We would number t he clusters 1-6 and use technology to randomly select two random numbers. It might look something like this: JDEUSTAQUIO 21 2. 3. 2. 5 Multistage SamplingMultistage sampling is a probability sampling method where there is a hierarchical configuration of sampling units and we select a sample of these units in stages. Unlike all the other previously presented sample selection procedures where the process of sampling takes place in a single phase, we accomplish the selection of the elements in the sample under multistage sampling after several stages of sampling. We first partition the population into non-overlapping primary stage units (PSUs) and select a sample of PSUs. We then subdivide the selected PSUs into non-overlapping second-stage units (SSUs) and select a sample of SSUs.We continue the process until we identify the elements in the sample at the last stage of sampling. For example, consider a light-bulb example using two-stage sampling procedure. Let's suppose that the bulbs come off the assembly line in boxes that each contains 20 packages of four bulbs each. One strategy would be to do the sample in two stages: Stage 1: A quality control engineer removes every 200th box coming off the line. (The plant produces 5,000 boxes daily. (This is systematic sampling. ) Stage 2: From each box, the engineer then samples three packages to inspect. (This is an example of cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3 Methods of Nonprobability Sampling All sampling methods that do not satisfy the requirements of probability sampling are considered as nonprobability sampling selection procedures. These methods do not make use of randomization mechanism in identifying the sampling units included in the sample. It allows the researcher to choose the units in the sample subjectively. And since the sample selection is subjective, there is really no way to assess the reliability of the results without so much assumptions (remember assumptions are very prone to mistakes). JDEUSTAQUIO 22Despit e this drawback of nonprobability sampling, these methods are still more commonly used since it is less costly and easier to administer. Here are some of the most basic nonprobability sampling selection procedures: 2. 3. 3. 1 Haphazard or Convenience Sampling In haphazard or convenience sampling, the sample consists of elements that are most accessible or easier to contact. This usually includes friends, acquaintances, volunteers, and subject who are available and willing to participate at the time of the study. The most common example that we could see on the television is the text polls about a certain issue.This type of sampling the opinion of the people doesn’t involve randomization mechanism in the selection of the units in the sample. This is sometimes referred to as the nonprobability counterpart of simple random sampling. 2. 3. 3. 2 Judgement or Purposive Sampling The elements are carefully selected to provide a â€Å"representative† sample. Studies have demons trated that selection bias can arise even with expert choice but nevertheless the method may be appropriate for very small samples when the expert has a good deal of information about the population-elements. The two common features of the method are: a. sampling units often consist of relatively large groups; and, b. ) sampling units are chosen so that they will provide accurate estimates for important control variables for which results are known for the whole population and its hoped that it will give â€Å"good† estimates for other variables that are highly correlated with the control variables. This sampling method may be considered as the nonprobability counterpart of Cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3. 3 Quota Sampling This is considered as the nonprobability counterpart of stratified sampling. In this method, interviewers are assigned quotas of respondents of different types to interview.The quotas are sometimes chosen to be in proportion to the estimated population figures fo r various types, often based on past census data. The researcher also chooses the groups or strata in the study but the selection of the sampling units within the stratum does not make use of a probability sampling method. JDEUSTAQUIO 23 2. 4 Presentation of Data After data collection, we organize and analyze the data, and then we present the results of our analysis in some form that will allow us to reveal and highlight the important information that we were able to extract.Unless we do this, we will only get lost in huge mound of numbers and labels that we have collected. Our grade school teachers already taught us this various kinds of presenting the data so why do we need to study this again? We may be familiar with the line chart and the bar chart but we need to learn or review the basic principles of constructing a good table and a good graph. With good data presentation, we can discover, and even explore possible relationships. Poor data presentation will only mislead, deceiv e, and misinform.It is therefore essential that we remember to put a more conscious effort to use these different methods of presentation properly in order to maximize data description and analysis. 2. 4. 1 Textual Presentation Textual Presentation of data incorporates important figures in a paragraph of text. In textual presentation, it aims to direct the readers’ attention to some data that need particular emphasis as well as to some important comparisons and to supplement with a narrative account from a table or a chart. It could also show the summary measures like minimum, maximum, totals and percentages.We do not need to put all figures in a textual presentation; we just have to select the most important ones that we want to focus on. Example: The Philippine Stock Exchange composite index lost 7. 19 points to 2,099. 12 after trading between 2,095. 30 and 2,108. 47. Volume was 1. 29 billion shares worth 903. 15 million pesos (16. 7milliondollars). The broader all share in dex gained 5. 21 points to 1,221. 34. (From: Free mandated March 17, 2005) When the data become voluminous, the textual presentation is strongly not advised because the presentation becomes almost incomprehensible.JDEUSTAQUIO 24 2. 4. 2 Tabular Presentation Tabular Presentation of data arranges figures in a systematic manner in rows and columns. Tabular presentation is the most common method of data presentation. It can be used for various purposes such as description, comparison, and even showing relationships between two or more variables of interest. We will discuss three types of presenting in tabular form, namely; Leader Work, Text Tabulation and Formal Statistical table which is categorized according to their format and layout. Leader WorkLeader work has the simplest layout among the three types of tables. It contains no table title or column headings and has no table borders. This table needs an introductory or descriptive statement so that the reader can understand the given figures. The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follows a 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b 42,070,660 48,098,460 60,703,206b 68,616,536b 76,498,735 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad.In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, military camps, etc. As you can see, the above table would not be clear without the introductory statement. Likewise, both have no table numbers that we can use to refer to these figures. Thus, we use the leader work when there are only one or two columns of figures that we can incorporate as part of the textual presentation for a more organized presentation. Text Tabu lat io n The format of text tabulation is a little bit more complex than leader work.It already has column headings and table borders so that it is easier to understand than leader work. However it still does not have table title and table number. Thus, it also requires an introductory statement so that the readers can comprehend the given figures. Similar to leader work, we can place additional explanatory statement in the footnote. JDEUSTAQUIO 25 The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follow a Year 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b No. of Filipinos (in thousands) 42,070. 66 48,098. 46 60,703. 21b 68,616. 54b 76,498. 4 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad. In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, military camps, etc. Form al Statistical Table The formal statistical table is the most complete type of table since it has all the different and essential parts of a table like table numbe r, table title, head note, box head, stub head, column headings, and so on.It could be a stand-alone table since it does not need any accompanying texts and it could be easily understood on its own. Heading consists of the table number, title and head note. It is located on top of the table of figures. i. Table number is the number that identifies the position of the table in a sequence. ii. Table title states in telegraphic form of the subject, data classification, and place and period covered by the figures in the table. iii. Head note appears below the title but above the top cross rule of the table and provides additional information about the table.Box head consists of spanner heads and columns heads. i. Spanner head is a caption or label describing two or more column heads. ii. Column head is a label that describes the figures in a column. iii. Panel is a set of column heads under the same spanner head. Stub consists of row captions, center head, and stub head. It is located a t the left side of the table. i. Row caption is a label that describes the figures in a row. ii. Center head is a label describing a set of row captions. iii. Stub head is a caption or label that describes all of the center heads and row captions.It is located on the first row. iv. Block is a set of row captions under the same center head. JDEUSTAQUIO 26 Table number Stub head Title Head note Table 10. 9 Employed Persons by Major Industry Group January 2008 – October 2010 (in thousands) Panel Heading Spanner head Column head Industry Group Oct Total Agriculture Center head Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry Fishing 36,488 12,265 10,769 1,496 5,375 197 3,058 163 1,957 18,550 2010 Jul Apr 36,237 12,244 10,760 1,484 5,409 194 3,003 141 2,071 18,585 35,413 11,512 10,073 1,439 5,487 212 3,063 137 2,075 18,414 Jan 6,001 11,806 10,351 1,455 5,322 193 3,009 157 1,963 18,872 Oct 35,478 12,072 10,563 1,509 5,154 169 2,937 160 1,888 18,250 2009 Jul Apr 35,508 11,940 10,476 1,464 5,273 17 7 2,947 145 2,004 18,294 34,997 12,313 10,841 1,472 5,088 166 2,841 130 1,951 17,595 Jan 34,262 11,846 10,446 1,400 4,856 152 2,849 134 1,721 17,560 Oct 34,533 12,320 10,860 1,460 5,078 176 2,897 123 1,882 17,135 2008 Jul Apr 34,593 12,103 10,695 1,408 5,130 154 2,960 146 1,870 17,360 33,535 11,904 10,450 1,454 5,000 151 2,883 123 1,843 16,630 Jan 33,693 11,792 10,409 1,383 4,981 152 2,963 126 1,740 16,919Industry Mining nd Quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, Gas and Water Construction Services Wholesale & Retail Trade, Repair of Motor Vehicles, Motorcycles & Personal & Household Goods Hotels and Restaurants Transport, Storage and Communication Financial Intermediation Real Estate, Renting and Business Activities Public Administration & Defense, Compulsory Social Security Education Health and Social Work Other Community, Social & Personal Service Activities Private Households with Employed Persons Extra-Territorial Organizations & Bodies 7,158 7,030 6,885 7,064 6,901 ,725 6,681 6,6 35 6,528 6,599 6,322 6,333 1,119 2,711 412 1,239 1,037 2,704 420 1,166 991 2,741 383 1,061 1,104 2,735 384 1,119 1,012 2,735 375 1,100 1,064 2,694 376 1,090 976 2,628 389 1,023 988 2,660 337 1,044 941 2,587 373 985 984 2,525 369 969 924 2,575 366 953 964 2,674 364 904 BLOCK 1,771 1,165 465 855 1,954 1 1,835 1,238 457 866 1,831 1 1,959 1,156 447 984 1,804 3 1,823 1,146 432 949 2,114 2 1,771 1,168 412 868 1,908 0 1,772 1,157 428 876 2,110 2 1,794 1,068 408 907 1,718 3 1,659 1,157 435 857 1,785 3 1,690 1,096 406 796 1,733 * 1,741 1,076 386 847 1,863 1 ,661 1,028 384 843 1,572 2 1,612 1,083 390 846 1,747 2 Notes: 1. Data were taken from the results of the quarterly rounds of the Labor Force Survey (LFS) using past week as reference peri od. 2. Details may not add up to totals due to rounding. 3. The definition of unemployment was revised starting the April 2005 round of the LFS. As such, LFPRs, employment rates and unemployment rates are not comparable with those of previous survey roun ds. Also starting with January 2007, estimates were based on 2000 Census-based projections. 4. Data are as of January 2012. / – preliminary source note Source: National Statistics Office (NSO). footnote JDEUSTAQUIO 27 2. 4. 3 Graphical Presentation Tabular Presentation of data portrays numerical figures or relationships among variables in pictorial form. The graph or statistical chart is a very powerful tool in presenting data. It is an important medium of communication because we can create a pictorial representation of the numerical figures found in tables without showing too many figures. We construct graphs not only for presentation purposes but also as an initial step in analysis.The graph, as a tool for analysis, can exhibit possible associations among the variables and can facilitate the comparison of different groups. It can also reveal trends over time. The different types of statistical charts are line chart, vertical bar chart, horizontal bar chart, pictograph, pie chart, and statistical map. It is important to know when and how to use these different charts. The selection of the correct type of chart depends upon the specific objective, the characteristic of the users, the kind of data, and the type of device and aterial on hand. Line Chart The line chart is useful for presenting historical data. This chart is effective in showing the movement of a series over time. As shown in the figures below, the movement can be increasing, decreasing, stationary, or could be fluctuating. Title at Top Scale figures for y-axis 20 No. of Accidents involving Company B during their Years of Service No. of Accidents Scale label for y-axis 15 10 Grid lines 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Footnote Source Note Years of Service Scale label for x-axisScale figures for x-axis JDEUSTAQUIO 28 NEVER use line charts/graphs that are too stretched either horizontally or vertically, for it may mislead the person looking at the graph and interpret it as something that it is not r eally representing. JDEUSTAQUIO 29 Types of Line Chart Simple Line Chart – This has only one curve and is appropriate for one series of time data. Multiple Line Chart – This type of line chart shows two or more curves. We use this if we wish to compare the trends in two or more data series.Although the use of Multiple Line Chart is now commonly used, it should be taken notice the number of series that you include in a graph, if there are a lot of series in a single chart, it might become too confusing to see. Number of Daily Responses (Example of Single Line Chart) JDEUSTAQUIO 30 Co lu m n Chart We use the column charts to compare amounts in a time series data. The emphasis in a column chart is on the differences in magnitude rather than the movement of a series. ? We can also use the column chart to graph the frequency distribution of a quantitative variable.We call this chart a frequency histogram. ? For time series data, we arrange the columns on the horizontal axis in chronological order, starting with the earliest date. Title at Top Grid lines Scale label for y-axis Scale figures for x-axis Scale figures for y-axis The proportions of the columns must be just right. Columns must not be too wide or too narrow. The space between the bars must also be just right. Usually, the space between bars is around one-fourth of the width of the column. It is also advisable to use scale figures that are multiples of 5.If the observed values are so small, we can use multiples of 1 or 2. JDEUSTAQUIO 31 Horizontal Bar Chart Its use is appropriate when we wish to show the distribution of categorical data. We use the horizontal bar chart so we can compare the magnitudes for the different categories of a qualitative variable. We place the categories of the qualitative variable on the yaxis. This will be more practical than placing the categories on the x-axis because there is more space for text labels on the y-axis. Just like the column charts, the bars should not be too wide, too narrow, too long and nor too short. Arranging the bars according to length usually facilitates comparisons. It may be decreasing or ascending order. ? If there are â€Å"Others† category, we always place this as the first or the last category. ? If the categorical variables have a natural ordering, such as a rating scale, then we should retain the order of the categories in the scale instead of arranging the bars according to length. ? We should always choose appropriate colors or patterns for the bars. We should avoid selecting wavy and weird patterns since this will only produce an optical illusion.JDEUSTAQUIO 32 Pie Chart It is a circle divided into several sections. Each section indicates the proportion of each component or category. This is useful for data sorted in to categories for a specific period. The purpose is to show the component parts with respect to the total in terms of the percentage distribution. The components of the pie chart should b e arranged according to magnitude. If there’s an ‘Others’ category, we put it in the last section. We use different colors, shading, or patterns to distinguish one section of the pie to the other sections.We plot the biggest slice at 12 o’clock. If we want to emphasize a particular sector of the pie chart, we may explode that slice by detaching it from the rest of the sectors. The pie chart is applicable for qualitative rather than quantitative data. However, if the variable has too many categories (more than 6), we should use the horizontal bar chart rather than the pie chart. JDEUSTAQUIO 33 Pictograph o It is like a horizontal bar chart but instead of using bars, we use symbols or pictures to represent the magnitude. o The purpose of this chart is to get the attention of the reader. The pictograph provides an overall picture of the data without presenting the exact figures. o Usually, we can only show approximate figures in a pictograph since we have to round off figures to whole numbers. It still allows the comparison of different categories even if we just present only the approximate values. o The choice for the symbol or picture should be apt for the type of data. It should be selfexplanatory, interesting, and simple. Statistical Maps ? ? ? ? ? This type of chart shows statistical data in geographical areas. This could also be called as crosshatched maps or shaded maps.Geographic areas may be barangays, cities, districts, provinces, and countries. The figures in the map can be ratios, rates, percentages, and indices. We do not use the absolute values and frequencies in statistical maps. JDEUSTAQUIO 34 Types of Statistical Maps ? Shaded Map – map that makes use of shading patterns. The shading pattern indicates the degree of magnitude. It usually runs gradually from dark to light (Darker shading of the map usually means larger magnitude). ? Dot map – chart that gives either the location or the number of establishme nts in a certain geographical area.The example below is a dot map of the number of people with Hispanic decent in the US. JDEUSTAQUIO 35 2. 5 Organization of Data The first step in data analysis is organizing the collected data. In its organized form, important features of the data become clear and apparent. The two common forms of organized data are the array and the frequency distribution 2. 5. 1 Raw Data and Array Raw Data are data in their original form. The actual data that we collect from surveys, observation, and experimentation are what we call raw data. Raw data have not yet been organized or processed in any manner.Example: Raw Data of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 79 62 74 79 81 65 79 94 75 52 73 85 78 82 83 79 73 81 88 81 74 60 92 86 86 60 90 64 57 63 88 63 87 69 77 53 76 52 72 89 66 56 57 92 82 66 70 72 73 63 88 77 60 97 70 92 67 92 50 65 72 74 79 51 86 55 67 66 79 95 60 93 66 99 89 94 97 78 55 79 77 92 93 92 50 65 79 62 56 77 53 72 57 62 8 0 79 76 82 74 76 Array is an ordered arrangement of data according to magnitude. We also refer to the array as sorted data or ordered data Arranging the observations manually according to magnitude is very tedious especially if we are dealing with voluminous data.Thus, it is more convenient to use computer programs to sort the data. The array is not a summarized data set. It is simply an ordered set of observations. We consider both the raw data and array as ungrouped data. JDEUSTAQUIO 36 Example: Array of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 50 50 51 52 52 53 53 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 60 60 60 60 62 62 62 63 63 63 64 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 69 70 70 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 75 76 76 76 77 77 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 80 81 81 81 82 82 82 83 85 86 86 86 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 92 92 92 92 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 97 97 99 2. 5. Frequency Distribution (FDT) The frequency distribution (FDT) is a way of summarizing data by showing the number of obs ervations that belong in the different categories or classes. We also refer to this as grouped data. The frequency distribution is another way of organizing the data. It is a summarized form of the raw data or array wherein we do not see the actual observed values anymore. The two general forms of frequency distribution are single-value grouping and grouping by class intervals: 1. Single-value grouping – is a frequency distribution where the classes are the distinct values of the variable.This is applicable for data with only a few unique values. 2. Grouping by Class Intervals – is a frequency distribution where the classes are the intervals. Example: Suppose we have data on the number of children of 50 married women using any modern contraceptive method. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 JDEUSTAQUIO 37 Since there are only 6 unique values in the data set, then we use single-value grouping, Distribution of Married Women Using Any Modern Method of Contraceptive by Number of Children No. of Children 0 1 2 3 4 5Number of Married Women 7 8 11 14 8 2 Concepts related to Frequency Distribution 1. Class Interval – is the range of values that belong in the class or category. 2. Class Frequency – is the number of observations that belong in a class interval. 3. Class Limits – are the end numbers used to define the class interval. The lower class limit (LCL) is the lower end number while the upper class limit (UCL) is the upper end number. 4. Open Class Interval – is a class interval with no lower class limit or no upper class limit. 5. Class Boundaries – are the true class limits.If the observations are rounded figures, then we identify the class boundaries based on the standard rules of rounding as follows: the lower class boundary (LCB) is halfway between the lower class limit of the class and the upper class limit of the preceding class while the upper class boundary (UCB) is halfway between the upper class limit of the class and the lower class limit of the next class. 6. Class size – is the size of the class interval. It is the difference between the upper class boundaries of the class and the preceding class; or the difference between the lower class boundaries of the next class and the class. . Class Mark – is the midpoint of a class interval. It is the average of the lower class limit and the upper class limit or the average of the lower class boundary and upper class boundary of a class interval. JDEUSTAQUIO 38 After learning the concepts that we need to construct a frequency distribution table, we can now list down the steps in constructing a frequency distribution table. †¢ Determine the adequate number of classes denoted by K Step 1: †¢ We can use the Sturges's rule to approximate the number of classes which is given by K = 1+ 3. 322(log n) Determine the range, R = highest observed value – s mallest observed Step 2: value †¢ Compute for the pre-class size C' = R/K Step 3: †¢ Determine the class size, C, by rounding-off C' to a convenient Step 4: number †¢ Choose the lower class limit of the first class. Make sure that the smallest Step 5: observation will belong in the first class. †¢ List the class intervals. Determine the lower class limits of the suceeding classes y adding the class size to the lower class limit of the previous class. The last lass Step 6: should include the largest observation. Step 7: †¢ Tally all the observed values in each class interval Sum the frequency column and check against the total number of Step 8: observations After constructing the basic frequency distribution table, we could now add some other components to it that would help us in the analysis of the data. o o Relative Frequency – is the class frequency divided by the total number of observations Relative Frequency Distribution Percentage (RFP)  œ is relative frequency multiplied by 100. JDEUSTAQUIO 39 The relative frequency and RFP show the proportion and percentage of observations falling in each class. The RFP allows us to compare two or more data sets with different totals.The sum of the RFP column is one hundred percent (100%). Another component that could be added to the FDT is the cumulative frequency distribution which is comprised of two components. o o The less than cumulative frequency distribution (CFD) shows the number of observations with values higher than or equal to the lower class boundary. Example: Using the data of the Grades of 10o Students who took Stat 101, we would construct the frequency distribution table with the extra components; RF, RFP CFD. First, we will compute for K using the Sturges’ rule, K = 1 + (3. 322*log n) = 1 + (3. 322*log 100) = 1 + (3. 322 *2) = 7. 644 ? Secondly, we compute for the range, R R = max. value – min. value = 99 – 50 = 49 Third, compute for Câ€℠¢ and eventually C C’ = R / K = 49 / 8 = 6. 125 ? 7 Now we can create the FDT for the data set, Class Limits LCL 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 UCL 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 Class Boundaries LCB 49. 5 56. 5 63. 5 70. 5 77. 5 84. 5 91. 5 98. 5 UCB – 56. 5 – 63. 5 – 70. 5 – 77. 5 – 84. 5 – 91. 5 – 98. 5 – 105. 5 Frequency f 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 n=100 Class Mark x 53 60 67 74 81 88 95 102 RF f/n 0. 11 0. 13 0. 13 0. 19 0. 19 0. 11 0. 13 0. 01 RFP % 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 ; CFD 11 24 37 56 75 86 99 100 CFD ; CFD 100 89 76 63 44 25 14 1JDEUSTAQUIO 40 Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution We can effectively interpret the frequency distribution when displayed pictorially since more people understand and comprehend the data in graphic form. In this section we would discuss the various method of presenting the frequency distribution in graphical form. 1. Frequency Histogram The frequency histogram shows the overall pictu re of the distribution of the observed values in the dataset. It displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The frequency histogram shows the shape of the distribution.The area under the frequency histogram corresponds to the total number of observations. The tallest vertical bar shows the frequency of the class interval with the largest class frequency. 2. Relative Frequency/ Relative Frequency Percentage Histogram The RF or RFP histogram displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the relative frequencies or RFPs of the class intervals on the vertical axis. It represents the relative frequency of each class by a vertical bar whose height is equal to the relative frequency of the class. The shape of the relative frequency histogram and frequency histogram are the same.JDEUSTAQUIO 41 3. Frequency Polygon For the frequency polygon, plot the class frequencies at the midpoint of the classes and connect the plotted p oints by means of straight lines. Since it is a polygon we need to close the ends of the graph. To close the polygon, add an additional class mark on both ends of the graph wherein both ends have the frequency of 0. The advantage of the frequency polygon over the frequency histogram is that it allows the construction of two or more frequency distributions on the same plot area. This facilitates the comparison of the different frequency distributions.The frequency polygon also exhibits the shape of the data distribution. JDEUSTAQUIO 42 4. Ogives The ogive is the plot of the cumulative frequency distribution. This graphical representation is used when we need to determine the number of observations below or above a particular class boundary. The less than ogive is the plot of the less than cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries. On the other hand, the greater than ogive is the plot of the greater than cumulative frequencies against the lower class boundaries. Connec t the successive points by straight lines.If we superimpose the less than and greater than ogives, the point of intersection gives us the value of the median. The median divides the ordered observations into two equal parts. JDEUSTAQUIO 43 †¢ Summary Measures Part 1 3. 1 Measures of Central Tendency The average is the popular term that is used to refer to a measure of central tendency. Most are already accustomed to thinking in terms of an average as a way of representing the collection of observations by a single value. For instance, we often use the average score to represent the scores in the exam of all students in a class.We can say that if the average score is high, then we conclude that the class performed well. The average could also be used to compare the performance of two groups based on the average of both groups and comparing which one has the higher average. The most common measure of central tendency is the arithmetic mean. The two other measures of central tende ncy that we will present in this section are the median and the mode. All of these measures aim to give information about the ‘center’ of the data or distribution. 3. 1 . 1 Summation NotationThe summation notation provides a compact way of writing the formulas for some of the summary measures that would be discussed in this section. The capital Greek letter â€Å"sigma†,? is the mathematical symbol that represents the process of summation. The symbol, ? is equal to X1 + X2 + X3 + †¦ + Xn where Xi = value of the variable for the ith observation i = index of the summation (the letter below ? ). 1 = lower limit of the summation (the number below ? ). n = upper limit of the summation (the letter above ? ). We read ? as â€Å"summation of X sub i, where I is from 1 to n†.JDEUSTAQUIO 44 S